Crime Scene Investigations by First Responders

Crime mental picture Investigations by First RespondersCrime characterisations contain the forensic tell required to apprehend wrongs. The proper arrangement and impact of somatogenic take the stand is of primary importance to most police investigations. demonstrate offer non only pass on the fact of the offense and identify the perpetrator, it whitethorn even lead to a conviction. In collecting this essay we essential be conscious of the publics Fourth Amendment rights and not violate them in this collection of demonstrate. Unfortunately, poorly conducted offensive prospect investigations tush sometimes either eradicate recount or render it useless.Law Enforcement should approach the abuse survey investigation as if it will be their only opportunity to write and recover these sensual clues. They should consider other case information or statements from witnesses or suspects cargonfully in their objective assessment of the guess. Investigations whitethorn sort course a arrive of times during such an inquiry and visible clues, initi ally thought irrelevant, may become crucial to a thriving resolution of the case.The primary responsibilities of the initial respondent to a criminal offense acknowledge the following (1) to preserve life and (2) to control suspects and witnesses. Once these two objectives arrive been achieved, the initial responder should focus their assist on nourishing the disgust expression. The initial response to an incident shall be expeditious and methodical. Upon arrival, the officer(s) shall assess the scene and treat the incident as a abuse scene. The initial responder should note or log dispatch information such as names, address, time, type of call, and either other relevant information. Be aw be of any persons or vehicles leaving the execration scene. The importance of preserving the scene and its adjacent plains in their original condition give the gatenot be overemphasized. Approach the sce ne cautiously, scan the completed area to thoroughly assess the scene, and note any possible second-string curse scenes. Be aware of any persons and vehicles in the vicinity that may be related to the crime. Remain alert and attentive Assume the crime is ongoing until determined to be otherwise. as well treat the location as a crime scene until assessed and determined to be otherwise.It is usually the uniform peace officer who first arrives at the scene of a crime. by and by controlling any dangerous situations or persons, the initial responding officers next province is to ensure that medical attention is provided to injured persons while minimizing defilement of the scene. The initial responding officer shall ensure that medical attention is provided with minimal contamination of the scene by guiding medical power to the victim to minimize contamination or adjustment of the crime scene. Point out potential physical evidence to medical personnel, instruct them to minimize contact with such evidence (e.g., ensure that medical personnel preserve all clothing and in the flesh(predicate) effects without cutting through bullet holes, knife tears), and document exertion of persons or items by medical personnel. Instruct medical personnel not to clean up the scene and to avoid removal or alteration of items originating from the scene.Protecting the evidence typically involves the establishing a perimeter. In fact, for some crime scenes, two perimeters may be appropriate (Garrison, 1994, pp. 18-20). merely the investigator in charge and those personnel that he gives permission to should be allowed to cross these boundaries (Dienstein, 1962, pp. 16-26).Detectives and supervisors are normally in charge of investigations. on that point should, however, only be whizz person in charge of the crime scene itself. The first distrust that the investigator will ask when he arrives is as follows Has anyone been allowed to enter the scene? (Dienstein, 1962, pp. 16 -26)? The investigator should then use whatever resources are available (e.g., barricades or other uniformed officers) to further protect the area. Such measures exclude both curious bystanders and curious officials. Investigators often must turn away any number of officialsboth in and out of uniformwho could unintentionally destroy evidence.Once the area has been secured, the investigator then carries out the duties of seek commander. Initially, the commander must happen the following information The time of the arrival of the first officer at the scene, who was innovate, what was said, and whether or not everything is exactly as it was when the officer arrived (Dienstein, 1962, pp. 16-26). Then, the addresses of all persons open on or adjacent to the scene should be collected. Although these deal are questioned about their exact location at the time of the crime, they do not usually undergo examen on the spot. Rather, such persons are scarcely re move from the scene and se parated They should not be allowed to talk to severally other until each has been carefully questioned and statements have been obtained singulars considered as suspect(s) should be ask their Miranda Rights. Any violation of Fourth Amendment rights could jeopardize any evidence obtained during an interrogation or interview for use in the case at a trial.The next phase of crime scene investigation make ups of surveying the scene. be and controlling boundaries provide a means for protecting and securing the crime scene(s). The number of crime scenes and their boundaries are determined by their location(s) and the type of crime. Boundaries shall be naturalized beyond the initial scope of the crime scene(s) with the understanding that the boundaries can be reduced in size if necessary but cannot be as easily spread out. The investigator needs to get an over-all picture of the area in which the offense occurred (Dienstein, 1962, pp. 16-26). After a preliminary survey has been perf ormed, the crime scene examination should be initiated. The investigator must try to start the investigation cold (Dienstein, 1962, pp. 16-26). There should be no preconceived notions of what happened, how it happened, or who cleverness have done it. Such conclusions must be based completely on the evidence install at the scene.It is during this initial stage of the investigation, that the seek commander has the scene photographed and sketched. Photography provides investigators with an accurate and permanent record. Nothing at a crime scene should ever be touched, picked up, or moved until it has been photographed. Only a true photograph can be presented in court (Dienstein, 1962, pp. 16-26). If it can be shown that something in the picture was tampered with, or that there are objects present that were not there originally, then the photograph cannot be used as evidence. Photographers should be present throughout the investigation. In amplification to photographs, the search commander also has a sketch made of the area. Sketching should be started as soon as possible. These freehand great dealings are typically orient by compass directions. Moreover, the location of all sketched objects should be determined by accurate measurements. While photographs produce everything within the range and field of the camera lens, sketches embroil only certain essential items. There are leash types of crime scene photographs and sketches. These include the following (1) those that describe the locality (2) those that reproduce the immediate grounds and (3) those that cover the inside information of the scene. Locality reproduction produces a picture of the crime scene and its surroundings. These pictures should include such things as neighbour buildings, streets, and sidewalks. Second, reproductions of the grounds should describe the crime scenes immediate surroundings (e.g., the house, the garden, etc.). Finally, a details picture shows only the scene itself (e .g., the room in which the offense was committed).During picture taking and sketching, the search commander must formulate a plan of action. This involves designating the unhomogeneous crime scene areas and objects that need to be searched and inspected. The commander must also steady down how many investigators to assign to the case. Once the search has begun, it is up to the searchers to decide what objects will be dusted for latent prints and what objects will be removed as evidence. Searches need to be both thorough and accurate Nothing should be taken for granted. Furthermore, searchers should not attempt to rely on their memories. Instead, everything of possible significance must be recorded (Dienstein, 1962, pp. 16-26).With the development of more advanced research laboratory technologies, the role of physical evidence in the apprehension and prosecution of criminals has expanded considerably. It is generally assumed that by gathering more evidence, the investigator incre ases the likelihood of identifying the suspects (Greenwood et al., 1977, pp. 165-166). Evidence is defined as anything that may be presented in determine the truth about a fact in question (Dienstein, 1962, pp. 16-26). physiological evidence has three general purposes (1) it can verify that a crime has been committed (2) it can identify the person or persons who committed the crime and (3) it can exonerate all other persons who may be under suspicion. Physical evidence proving that a crime has been committed may include such things as broken door locks or bodily wounding to the complainant. Evidence indicating that the suspect was at the scene of the crime can consist of fibers or injury to the suspect (Greenwood et al., 1977, pp. 143-149). These forms of evidence support probable start in having a warrant issued for further investigations that lead away from the unfeigned crime scene. There are two main types of evidence found at crime scenes (1) fixed evidence and (2) movable evidence. Fixed evidence includes such things as latent fingerprints, shoe prints, tire prints, tool marks, and objects which cannot be removed because of bulk, weight, or other factors. In contrast, movable evidence consists of items which can be easily removed and stored. Finally, it should also be noted that close to anything can constitute a clue in a criminal investigation. Therefore, everything must be recorded and nothing should be overlooked.Once evidence is discovered, the search commander should have its location reproduced by sketch and/or photograph. The commander then marks the evidence for purposes of identification. The searcher who discovered the evidence should stand by as a witness to this marking and intervention procedure. The term, chain of clench, refers to the possession of evidence (Dienstein, 1962, pp. 16-26). Investigators must be able to establish the continuous possession of evidence from the moment that it is discovered until the time that it is prese nted in court. By having the search commander handle all evidence, this chain of custody is reduced.In recent years, many police departments have augmented their evidence gathering capabilities by hiring additional personnel. Evidence technicians, or Crime Scene Search Officers, are highly trained crime scene processing specialists (Greenwood et al., 1977, pp. 143-149). These personnel can be dispatched just like patrol officers. Evidence technicians are generally used whenever there is retrievable physical evidence, or whenever the patrol officer feels that a photograph of the crime scene could be of benefit (Greenwood et al., 1977, pp. 143-149).A medical examiner may also be present at a crime scene. Coroners serve as a warmheartedness man between the medical examiner and law enforcement (Voelker, 1995, p. 1164). A coroner with forensic training may also act as a liaison between law enforcement, the media, and the public.The presence of many diverse personnel at a crime scene ca n give turn off to conflict. However, everyone present has a specific job to do moreover, each individual task is an important part of the broad(a) mission. Search commanders should direct all activities such that conflict is minimized. As Dienstein (1962) emphasizes, Teamwork is essential to crime scene search (Dienstein, 1962, pp. 16-26).Besides hiring personnel, many departments are also in the process of update their criminalist equipment. For example, Anchorage Alaskas police department recently converted a customized go home into a modern crime scene vehicle. By reservation crime scene investigation faster and more thorough, such tools can improve a teams overall efficiency.There are various problems that may be encountered during crime scene investigations. Two of these include staging and contamination. scaffolding involves the alteration of a crime scene prior to the arrival of police. There are different reasons for staging. For one, an offender might try to direct inv estigators attention elsewhere. Such persons may act overly cooperative or look extremely distraught. Second, staging can also represent an attempt to protect either the victim or the victims family. Such cases usually involve people who are concerned about the position, dress, or condition of a victims clay (Douglas Munn, 1992, pp. 1-10).Perhaps the biggest problem that crime scene technicians face, however, is crime scene contamination. mad forensic techniques may be adversely affected by crime scene trampling. Police departments should have a written policy regarding crime scene protection and preservation. In addition, supervisors and investigators must set an example for the entire crime scene team by adhering to the guidelines.Crime scene investigation is a complex process. It involves a number of different professionals and various areas of expertise. Only by acting as a team, however, will the members of such a diverse group ensure that their efforts result in a presuma ble outcome. The alteration of a crime scene can cause investigators to draw erroneous conclusions. By expeditiously carrying out his responsibilities, the initial responder may determine the ultimate outcome of an entire investigation.

Benefits And Barriers To Ehr Health And Social Care Essay

Benefits And Barriers To Ehr wellness And Social C atomic number 18 Essaywellness information processing is a multidisciplinary argona which covers treat, technology and people. The atomic number 18a puts an emphasis on instruction execution of information technology and computer science to wellness sympathize with to bettor manage it. E-wellness or electronic wellness do by is a relatively raw(a) discipline introduced to improve patient c are, shorten delay times, and prevent errors in clinical settings. Electronic health record (EHR) is an electronic record of patients health check history which includes that is not limited to medications, X-rays, allergies, immunizations etceteraoften accessed by accredited staff office department (doctors, nurses and pharmacists) at hospitals and clinics. This pass on replace composing and eliminate the charter for manual paperwork which is unreliable and tedious. According to International Journal of Medical information process ing V. 78, By 2041, 22% of the Canadian population is expected to be elder 65 or over, up from 13% in 2001 (The Change Foundation, 2005). As the elderly population start to retire, the cost and pack of health finagle increases drastically. This in like manner increases the risks of diseases with aging much(prenominal) as type two diabetes, cardiovascular disease, divergent types of cancer, arthritis, Alzheimers disease and to a greater extent. Thusly, vernal and streamlined governances are needed for this to better apportion this trend. EHR is necessary to fulfill the gaps between health supply and demand, it ordain good patients, health complaint personnel and improve health care strategy overall.There are both eudaemonias and barriers to EHR fortunately, there are ways to repress the barriers and implement EHR in Canada. The main returns of EHR for patients include the general approach for quality of care by providing detailed information close to patients medic ine intake and history, consequently preventing errors in the future. separate realises include the mobility of records from aesculapian institutions, thereof helping those in remote areas. There would also be less time lag times in exigency agencys and clinics since health check personnel ca-ca instant access to patients record. EHR also benefits healthcare providers and workers by reduction time spent on paperwork and increasing productivity while providing efficient and comprehensive care to the patients. In spite of this, some critical barriers do prevent it from acceptance. The major concern is privacy of patients records and security department. privacy is a in truth significant issue and several(prenominal)s want their information to be in arctic hands. Other barriers include initial setup be and training for young technologies. Overcoming these barriers go let on dominate time and bonuss both from public and government which go forth be discussed later. In conclusion, implementing electronic health records in Canada and overcoming the barriers allow benefit patients, healthcare personnel and improve the healthcare frame overall.Background naked as a jaybird technology has benefited humans to a great extent and EHR is certainly no exception. EHR has existed in Canada for a while but it is hitherto not amply ac get alongledged by the public. There are television commercials from Canada health Infoway promoting and rhytidoplasty awareness of EHR in Ontario and British Colombia. The Canadian government has dedicated $1.6 gazillion to Health Infoway whose objective is to implement a pan-Canadian EHR and provide records to all Canadians by 2015. Alberta has already launched a successful arranging called Netcare which lets physicians, hospitals and pharmacists access secured online system and describe patients health information. Netcare is one of the reasons why Alberta has the to the eminentest degree efficient and best heal th care system in Canada.On the other hand, Ontario has recently suffered from an stately scandal which resulted into an estimated $1 billion wasted. eHealth Ontario has come under(a) criticism as well. In April 2009, the provinces opposition parties argued that the government wasted $647 million developing electronic health records before they shut down the SSHA only to start again from scratch with eHealth Ontario (CBC News, 2009). The Health ministry of Ontario needs to take responsibility, stop wasting taxpayers money and implement this system which is long overdue. Other countries have already introduced EHR, such(prenominal) as United Kingdom, Australia, the Netherlands and New Zealand. Canada and United States are still debating adoption and give-up the ghosting shadower. Majority of the countries which have implemented EHR have national health insurance system which is funded through taxes, similar to Canada. Yet Canada is trailing behind due to ethical and political ba rriers. It is disap commoveing to some extent that Canada as a developed nation still lags behind other countries in health care advancements. Nonetheless, these barriers can be solved through change magnitude sustenance, incentives and establishment of secure systems.How does EHR benefit patients and health care workers?Physicians will benefit greatly from EHR, according to the International Journal of Medical Informatics V. 76 A recent survey of U.S. primary care physician base that almost 75% indicated that these applications could bowdlerise errors 70% perceived IT as potentially increasing their productivity over 60% indicated that IT tools have the potential to reduce costs and help patients assume more responsibility (J.G. Anderson/E.A. Balas, 2006). EHR helps medical provide keep track of patients electropositive medicines, previous health conditions, allergies and chronic diseases. This ensures physicians are fully aware of situation and can provide proper treatment with smaller chances of making errors. EHR provides access to current information at the point of care. It gives medical ser wrong providers access to key patient information on with online decision support and reference tools. It also helps reduce the possibility of medical errors, assists with compliance issues, and decreases the potential for adverse drug re bitions. Features like lab place trends and drug monographs also help with patient consultations. (Alberta Netcare, EHR). This benefits both physicians and patients.For example, if someone has a minor or major accident and is rushed to an tweak room for medical attention, the doctor is aimd to question the patient for previous medication, history, allergies etc. It is difficult for a patient to recall their history in such a state and is generally unable to communicate. This wastes time and becomes more in all likelihood for the doctor to misdiagnosis. According to Health Infoway, Right now in Canada, the miss of a comp rehensive EHR system, for e real 1,000 Hospital admissions, 75 people will suffer an adverse drug event Patients with an ambulatory encounter, 20 will suffer a serious drug occurrence Laboratory tests performed, up to 150 will be unneeded Emergency room visits, 320 patients will have an information gap, resulting in an average increased stay of 1.2 hours (Strasbourg, Health Infoway). If EHR were present, the doctor would have had instant access to patients medication history, allergies thus avoiding unnecessary testing. Also, it would allow a quicker diagnosis with little or no mistakes. This will save great amount of time in emergency rooms therefore reducing lines and making health care system more efficient. Some hospitals in North America do be possessed of EHR systems but its restricted to that specific institution. If EHR connections between hospitals and other medical institutions are set up, it becomes easier for health care practitioners to assess patients and provide ser vice. As a result, EHR allows medical professionals in remote areas to access information using meshwork and vice versa. In conclusion, there are some major benefits to EHR which could provide assistant to Canadas healthcare system and improve quality of care.What are the barriers and risks?There are some significant barriers which prevent EHR from implementing in Ontario and other provinces. The main and most controversial barrier is privacy and security of patients health record. EHRs contain genuinely personal important information about a patient which includes demographics, prescribed medicines, allergies, immunizations, lab tests, X-rays and other reports. It would be devastating and truly dangerous if records fall into the wrong hands and/or are mistreated. There has been an incident where a patients privacy was not respected. A guilty plea and hefty handsome for unauthorized access to personal health information sets a very important condition for health care providers , says Information and Privacy Commissioner blustering Work. A medical office clerk from Calgary pleaded guilty to charges of improperly accessing some other persons medical information, in contravention of the Health Information Act (HIA). The individual appeared in Calgary court Friday and was fined $10,000. This is the first time that charges have laid under the HIA. (Office of the Information and Privacy Commissioner of Alberta, 2007) This creates fear in the minds of the public and privacy and security is at stake despite laws and regulations. These incidents are rare but they do expose the lack of privacy and vulnerability of EHR to disloyal employees. There are also claims that EHRs access to internet and broad systems make it vulnerable to hackers. see to it 1 shows different factors which affect the objective of implementation. (International journal of medical informatics V28)Another barrier to EHR is the initial setup costs and hiring/training rung for new technologies . Developing integrated organizations can be costly and require years before efficiencies are realized. Information technology supports integrated care as EHR allows physicians to access patient information through alter network (Mary E. Wiktorowicz, p. 301). This can be very expensive because governments have to establish centralized system to store, nurse and handle records. As mentioned earlier, vast amount of funding ($1 billion) for eHealth has already been wasted in Ontario and it will be more difficult for taxpayers to reimburse this particularly during these harsh economic times. Great incentive and financial support is needed from public to accomplish this venture. All paper records have to be transformed into electronic which will be very time consuming. In conclusion, there are some significant barriers which immobilize the implementation of EHR.Overcoming barriersAs mentioned already, there are existing laws which already protect the privacy of Canadians. EHR must ob ey The Privacy Act whose purpose is to conduce the present laws of Canada that protect the privacy of individuals with respect to personal information about themselves held by a government institution and that provide individuals with a ripe(p) of access to that information (Privacy Act 1985, c. P-21). The Government of Canada and medical institution have a responsibility of protecting and insuring the security of medical records. Alberta has also introduced Health Information Act (HIA) which setup guidelines for both patients and health care workers. This act requires workers (authorized) to access files only when necessary and in professional manner. So utmost there has only been one situation which set a precedent and sent a serious message to all health care custodians and their employees. This is a very serious matter, and health care providers must know that surfing records for personal purposes will not be tolerated and individuals will be prosecuted (Wayne Wood, 2007). Me dical personnel that violate policy and law are held reprehensively responsible and their jobs are taken away immediately. Thus it would not be wise for any staff to commit such actions which would cost them their jobs, pay or even end up in jail.EHR are still more secure than ordinary paper records. For example, in November 2008 a reporter of RTV West, a local Dutch radio network, asked for a copy of medical records in several hospitals and asked to fax them to his home. He easily got six out of eight requests without any questions. In the two other cases the hospitals solely communicate a written permission (i.e. a signature) (Laurens J. van Baardewijk, Amsterdam faithfulness Forum). This exposes the weak and unsecure system of paper records. Fax machines, telephone and mail systems are very unreliable. There have been numerous incidents involving paper medical records either used improperly by clinical staff or stolen by an intruder and used for unlawful purposes. This is due to lack of security and reliability of traditional paper records. On the other hand, EHR requires login information from health care professionals and authorization is required from patient and worker. All EHR systems are encrypted and only fond to authorized users (doctors, nurses, health care workers). Encryption is established into multiple layers which require multiple login sessions and online security monitoring. This makes it extremely difficult for hackers to access the system consequently, EHR system is both safe and secure. Initial costs are very high and taxes have to increased once again to successful establish this system.An EHR system in Ontario does not necessarily have to cost a fortune, because they could hardly borrow and emulate the system from other provinces such as Alberta. McMaster University has already developed a beta system for EHR in hospitals but Ministry of Health is not paying close attention. Nonetheless, EHR system will be established very soon t hroughout Canada and once its established, itll decrease medical costs by $6 billion. This will eventually decrease the amount of taxes issued significantly, especially in Ontario. It will also create new jobs in health informatics field and provide training to nurses and doctors. It is estimated around 40,000 new jobs will be created. The benefits of EHR are far greater than the risks and barriers. EHR will certainly benefit Canadians and improve our health care system.ConclusionEHR has benefits, barriers and risks, but it is now patent that the benefits outweigh the risks. EHR will be available to all Canadians soon in the future despite the barriers because as population increases, diseases increases and senior citizen population increases accordingly. Therefore, demand for health care rises as more people are waiting in lines for hospitals and clinics. Comprehensive and efficient EHR systems are very crucial to have-to doe with health demands of citizens. Some key benefits inc lude the improvement of quality of care by providing information about history consequently preventing errors in the future. Other benefits include the mobility of records from medical institutions and reducing waiting times in emergency rooms and clinics since medical personnel have instant access to patients record. It also benefits health care providers and workers by reducing time spent on paperwork and increasing productivity while providing efficient and comprehensive care to the public. Privacy and security issues still remain nonetheless, they will be resolved with new laws and technological improvements. Initial setup will be expensive but EHRs benefits are vital to Canadas health care system. Canada needs to catch up to other developed countries in health informatics and improve health care system. To conclude, implementing EHR in Canada will benefit patients, health care personnel and improve health care system overall.

SERVQUAL MODEL as a Service Quality Measure

SERVQUAL MODEL as a Service Quality Measure1.0 IntroductionA great occupy of inspection and repair- timbre look for in re centime decades has been devoted to the development of measures of utility smell. In situation, the SERVQUAL cats-paw (Parasuraman et al., 1988) has been widely applied and valued by academics and practicing managers (Buttle, 1996). However, several studies create place potential difficulties with the hire of SERVQUAL (Carman, 1990 Cronin and Taylor, 1992 Asubonteng et al., 1996 Buttle, 1996 Van Dyke et al., 1997 Llosa et al., 1998). These difficulties comport related to the use of alleged(prenominal) variation go a ports, the ambiguity of the definition of consumer expectations, the st competency of the SERVQUAL graduated table over time, and the dimensionality of the instrument. As a core of these upbraidings, questions subscribe been raised regarding the use of SERVQUAL as a measure of religious go whole tone.1.1 The SERVQUAL exceedWhen the SERVQUAL plate was develop by Parasuraman et al. (1985, 1988), theiraim was to provide a generic instrument for amount proceeds select across a broad range of portion categories. Relying on information from 12 contract groups of consumers, Parasuraman et al. (1985) pass overed that consumers valuated service woodland by comparing expectations (of service to be received) with perceptions (of service actually received) on ten dimensions tangibles, dependableness, responsiveness, communication, credibility, security, competence, rationality/knowing customers, adroitness, and access. In a later (Parasuraman et al. (1988) exercise, the authors cut back the passe-partout ten dimensions to volt(1) tangibles (the appearance of physical facilities, equipment, and personnel)(2) reliability (the ability to commit the promised service dep quitably and accurately)(3) responsiveness (the willingness to help customers and provide nimble service)(4) empathy (the provision of i ndividual cargon and attention to customers) and(5) assurance (the knowledge and discretion of employees and their ability to inspire trust and confidence).Each dimension is measured by foursome to cinque accompaniments (making a total of 22 items across the five dimensions). Each of these 22 items is measured in both ways(1) the expectations of customers disturbing a service and(2) the perceived levels of service actually provided.In making these measurements, respondents atomic quash 18 asked to indicate their degree of agreement with certain statements on a s until now-point Likert-type scale (1 powerfully disagree to 7 strongly agree). For each item, a so-called kerfuffle explanation (G) is and soly calculated as the difference amidst the raw perception-of- murder score (P) and the raw expectations score (E). The greater the gap score (calculated as G P minus E), the high uper the score for perceived service prize.Chapter 2 Literature Review2.0 IntroductionDespit e the far-flung use of the SERVQUAL model to measure service quality, several suppositional and experimental criticisms of the scale have been raised. Buttle (1996) summa organised the major criticisms of SERVQUAL in devil broad categories theoretical and ope symmetrynal.Theoretical issues compriseParadigmatic objections SERVQUAL is based on a disconfirmation double rather than an attitudinal epitome and SERVQUAL fails to draw on established economic, statistical and mental theory.Gaps model there is little evidence that customers assess service quality in terms of P E gaps.Process orientation SERVQUAL focuses on the process of service delivery, non the solvents of the service encounter.Dimensionality SERVQUALs five dimensions argon not universals the cast of dimensions comprising SQ is contextualized items do not always lode on to the operators which unity would a priori expect and there is a high degree of intercorrelation betwixt the five RATER dimensions.Operationa l criticisms includeExpectations the term expectation is polysemic consumers use banners separate than expectations to evaluate SQ and SERVQUAL fails to measure absolute SQ expectations.Item composition four or five items can not capture the variability within each SQ dimension.Moments of truth (MOT) customers assessments of SQ whitethorn vary from MOT to MOT.Polarity the reversed augury of items in the scale causes respondent error.Scale points the seven-point Likert scale is flawed.deuce administrations two administrations of the instrument cause boredom and confusion.Variance extracted the over SERVQUAL score accounts for a disappointing proportion of item pas seuls.The above criticism will be discussed below.2.1 Paradigmatic objections (Theoretical Criticisms)Two major criticisms have been raised. First, SERVQUAL has been inappropriately based on an expectations disconfirmation model rather than an attitudinal model of SQ. Second, it does not build on existent knowledge in economics, statistics and psychology. SERVQUAL is based on the disconfirmation model widely take in the customer rejoicing publications. In this literature, customer satisfaction (CSat) is operationalised in terms of the relationship in the midst of expectations (E) and outcomes (O). If O matches E, customer satisfaction is predicted. If O exceeds E, then customer delight may be produced. If E exceeds O, then customer dissatisfaction is indicated. harmonize to Cronin and Taylor (1992 1994) SERVQUAL is paradigmatically flawed because of its ill-judged adoption of this disconfirmation model. Perceived quality, they claim, is beat out conceptualised as an view. They criticise Parasuraman et al. for their hesitancy to define perceived SQ in attitudinal terms, even though Parasuraman et al. (1988) had early claimed that SQ was similar in m whatsoever ways to an attitude.Cronin and Taylor signify Researchers have attempted to differentiate service quality from consumer sati sfaction, even opus exploitation the disconfirmation format to measure perceptions of service quality this approach is not consistent with the differentiation expressed betwixt these constructs in the satisfaction and attitude literatures.Iacobucci et al.s (1994) review of the debate surrounding the conceptual and operational differences between SQ and CSat concludes that the constructs have not been consistently defined and differentiate from each otherwise in the literature. She suggests that the two constructs may be connected in a number of ways. First, they may be both different operationalisations of the uniform construct, evaluation. Second, they may be orthogonally related, i.e. they may be entirely different constructs. Third, they may be conceptual cousins. Their family connections may be dependent on a number of other considerations, including for example, the duration of the evaluation. Parasuraman et al. (1985) have described satisfaction as more situation- or enc ounter- item, and quality as more ho add upic, developed over a protracted period of time, although they offer no empirical evidence to support this contention. SQ and CSat may likewise be related by time order. The pre governing ruling is that SQ is the logical predecessor to CSat, but this remains unproven. Cronin and Taylors critique draws support from Olivers (1980) research which suggests that SQ and CSat ar distinct constructs but ar related in that satisfaction mediates the effect of prior-period perceptions of SQ and causes revised SQ perceptions to be formed. SQ and CSat may also be differentiated by virtue of their content. Whereas SQ may be thought of as high in cognitive content, CSat may be more heavily slopped with affect (Oliver, 1993). Cronin and Taylor suggest that the adequacy-importance model of attitude measurement should be adopted for SQ research. Iacobucci et al. (1994) add the observation that in somewhat general psychological sense, it is not clear wh at short-term evaluations of quality and satisfaction are if not attitudes. In turn, Parasuraman et al. (1994) have vigorously defended their position, claiming that critics seem to discount prior conceptual act as in the SQ literature, and suggest that Cronin and Taylors rifle does not justify their claim that the disconfirmation paradigm is flawed.In other work, Cronin and Taylor (1994) explanation that Recent conceptual advances suggest that the disconfirmation-based SERVQUAL scale is measuring neither service quality nor consumer satisfaction. Rather, the SERVQUAL scale appears at best an operationalisation of entirely one of the many forms of expectancy disconfirmation.A different concern has been raised by Andersson (1992). He objects to SERVQUALs failure to draw on former social science research, particularly economic theory, statistics, and psychological theory. Parasuraman et al.s work is exceedingly inductive in that it moves from historically situated observation to general theory.Andersson (1992) claims that Parasuraman et al. forsake the principle of scientific continuity and deduction. Among specific criticisms are the future(a)First, Parasuraman et al.s steering technology takes no account of the costs of improving service quality. It is nave in assuming that the peripheral revenue of SQ improvement always exceeds the marginal cost. (Aubrey and Zimbler, 1983., Crosby., 1979, Juran., 1951 and Masser., 1957) have addressed the issue of the costs/benefits of quality improvement in service settings.)Second, Parasuraman et al. collect SQ data using ordinal scale methods (Likert scales) except perform analyses with methods suited to interval-level data (factor analysis).Third, Parasuraman et al. are at the absolute end of the street regarding possibilities to use statistical methods. Ordinal scales do not go away for investigations of common product-moment correlations. Interdependencies among the dimensions of quality are difficult to des cribe. SERVQUAL studies cannot answer questions such as Are there elasticities among the quality dimensions? Is the customer value of improvements a elongate or non-linear function?Fourth, Parasuraman et al. fail to draw on the large literature on the psychology of perception.2.2 Gaps ModelA related set of criticisms refer to the value and humbleing of gaps identified in the disconfirmation model. Babakus and Boller (1992) tack the use of a gap approach to SQ measurement intuitively appealing but hazard that the difference scads do not provide any spare information beyond that already contained in the perceptions agent of the SERVQUAL scale. They found that the dominant contributor to the gap score was the perceptions score because of a generalised reception tendency to rate expectations high.Churchill and Surprenant (1982), in their work on CSat, also excogitate whether gap measurements contribute anything new or of value given that the gap is a direct function of E and P. It has also been noted that firearm conceptually, difference scores might be sensible, they are problematic in that they are notoriously unreliable, even when the measures from which the difference scores are derived are themselves highly reliable (Iacobucci et al., 1994).Also, in the context of CSat, Oliver (1980) has pondered whether it might be preferent to consider the P E scores as raw differences or as ratios. No work has been get acrossed using a ratio approach to measure SQ. Iacobucci et al. (1994) take a different tack on the incorporation of E-measures. They suggest that expectations might not exist or be formed clearly enough to serve as a standard for evaluation of a service experience. Expectations may be formed concurrently with service enjoyment. Kahneman and Miller (1986) have also proposed that consumers may form experience-based norms subsequently service experiences, rather than expectations before.A further issue raised by Babakus and Inhofe (1991) is th at expectations may attract a social desirability response bias. Respondents may experience motivated to adhere to an I-have-high-expectations social norm. Indeed, Parasuraman et al. report that in their interrogation of the 1988 version the majority of expectations scores were above half dozen on the seven-point scale. The general mean expectation was 6.22 (Parasuraman et al., 1991b).Teas (1993a 1993b 1994) has pondered the meaning of identified gaps. For example, there are cardinal ways of producing P E gaps of -1 (P = 1, E = 2 P = 2, E = 3 P = 3, E = 4 P = 4, E = 5 P = 5, E = 6 P = 6, E = 7). Do these fastened gaps mean equal perceived SQ? He also notes that SERVQUAL research thus far has not established that all service providers within a consideration or picking set, e.g. all car-hire firms do, in fact, share the corresponding expectations ratings across all items and dimensions.A further criticism is that SERVQUAL fails to capture the dynamics of changing expectations . Consumers learn from experiences. The inference in much of Parasuraman et al.s work is that expectations rise over time. An E-score of seven in 1986 may not necessarily mean the same as an E-score in 1996. Expectations may also fall over time (e.g. in the health service setting). Grnroos (1993) recognises this weakness in our understanding of SQ, and has called for a new phase of service quality research to focus on the dynamics of service quality evaluation. Wotruba and Tyagi (1991) agree that more work is needed on how expectations are formed and changed over time.Implicit in SERVQUAL is the assumption that positive and negative disconfirmations are symmetrically valent. However, from the customers perspective, failure to butt on expectations often seems a more world-shattering outcome than success in meeting or exceeding expectations (Hardie et al., 1992). Customers will often criticise inadequate service performance and not praise elisional performance.Recently, Cronin and Taylor (1992) have tried a performance-based measure of SQ, dubbed SERVPERF, in four industries (banking, pest control, dry modify and fast food). They found that this measure explained more of the variance in an general measure of SQ than did SERVQUAL. SERVPERF is composed of the 22 perception items in the SERVQUAL scale, and therefore excludes any consideration of expectations. In a later defence of their argument for a perceptions-only measure of SQ, Cronin and Taylor (1994) acknowledge that it is possible for researchers to infer consumers disconfirmation through arithmetic way of life (the P E gap) but that consumer perceptions, not calculations, govern behavior. Finally, a group of researchers, including Zeithaml herself (Boulding et al., 1993), has recently rejected the value of an expectations-based or gap-based model in purpose that service quality was only influenced by perceptions.2.3 Process orientationSERVQUAL has been criticized for nidus on the process of se rvice delivery rather than outcomes of the service encounter. Grnroos (1982) identified three servings of SQ technical, operating(a) and reputational quality. Technical quality is concerned with the outcome of the service encounter, e.g. have the dry cleaners got rid of the stain? Functional quality is concerned with the process of service delivery, e.g. were the dry cleaners counter provide courteous? Reputational quality is a reflection of the corporate image of the service organization. While technical quality focuses on what, functional quality focuses on how and involves consideration of issues such as the behaviour of customer contact round, and the despatch of service. Critics have argued that outcome quality is missing from Parasuraman et al.s formulation of SQ (Cronin and Taylor, 1992 Mangold and Babakus, 1991 Richard and Allaway, 1993). Richard and Allaway (1993) time-tested an augmented SERVQUAL model which they claim incorporates both process and outcome components , and comment that the challenge is to determine which process and outcome quality attributes of SQ have the great impact on choice1. Their research into Domino Pizzas process and outcome quality employed the 22 Parasuraman etal. (1988) items, circumscribed to suit context, and the following six outcome items(1) Dominos has delicious home-delivery pizza.(2) Dominos has nutritious home-delivery pizza.(3) Dominos home-delivery pizza has flavourful sauce.(4) Dominos provides a generous amount of toppings for its home-delivery pizza.(5) Dominos home-delivery pizza is make with superior ingredients.(6) Dominos prepared its home-delivery pizza crust exactly the way I like it.These researchers found that the process-only items borrowed and adapted from SERVQUAL accounted for only 45 per cent of the variance in customer choice the full inventory, inclusive of the six outcome items, accounted for 71.5 per cent of variance in choice. The difference between the two is significant at the 0.0 01 level. They conclude that process-and-outcome is a better predictor of consumer choice than process, or outcome, alone. In defense of SERVQUAL, Higgins et al., (1991) have argued that outcome quality is already contained within these dimensions reliability, competence and security.2.4 DimensionalityCritics have raised a number of significant and related questions active the dimensionality of the SERVQUAL scale. The most(prenominal) serious are concerned with the number of dimensions and their stability from context to context. There seems to be general agreement that SQ is a second-order construct, that is, it is factorially complex, being composed of several first-order variables 2. SERVQUAL is composed of the five RATER 3 factors. There are however, several alternative conceptualizations of SQ. As already noted, Grnroos (1984) identified three components technical, functional and reputational quality Lehtinen and Lehtinen (1982) also identify three components interactive, p hysical and corporate quality Hedvall and Paltschik (1989) identify two dimensions willingness and ability to serve, and physical and psychological access Leblanc and Nguyen (1988) list five components corporate image, internal organisation, physical support of the service producing system, staff/customer interaction, and the level of customer satisfaction.Parasuraman et al. (1988) have claimed that SERVQUAL provides a basic material body through its expectations/perceptions format encompassing statements for each of the five service quality dimensions. The skeleton, when necessary, can be adapted or supplemented to fit the characteristics or specific research needs of a particular organization.In their 1988 paper, Parasuraman et al. also claimed that the last 22-item scale and its five dimensions have sound and stable psychometric properties. In the 1991b revision, Parasuraman et al. found evidence of consistent factor structure across five independent samples. In other words, they make claims that the five dimensions are generic across service contexts. Indeed, in 1991, Parasuraman et al. claimed that SERVQUALs dimensions and items represent core evaluation criteria that decease specific companies and industries (1991b) 4.2.5 Number of dimensionsWhen the SERVQUAL instrument has been employed in modified form, up to nine distinct dimensions of SQ have been revealed, the number varying according to the service sector under investigation. One study has even produced a single-factor solution. 9 factors accounted for 71 per cent of SQ variance in Carmans (1990) hospital research access service, tangible accommodations, tangible food, tangible privacy, nursing care, explanation of treatment, access and courtesy afforded visitors, discharge planning, and patient accounting (billing)5.Five factors were distinguished in Saleh and Ryans (1992) work in the hotel industry conviviality, tangibles, reassurance, avoid sarcasm, and empathy. The first of these, co nviviality, accounted for 62.8 per cent of the overall variance the second factor, tangibles, accounted for a further 6.9 per cent the five factors together accounted for 78.6 per cent. This is strongly suggestive of a two-factor solution in the hospitality industry. The researchers had initially presume that the factor analysis would confirm the SERVQUAL dimensions but this failed to be the case.Four factors were extracted in Gagliano and Hathcotes (1994) investigation of SQ in the retail clothing sector personal attention, reliability, tangibles and convenience. Two of these have no correspondence in SERVQUAL. They conclude the skipper SERVQUAL scale does not perform as well as expected in apparel intensity retailing. Three factors were identified in Bouman and van der Wieles (1992) research into car avail customer kindness, tangibles and faith 6. The authors were not able to find the same dimensions for settle service quality as did Berry et al.One factor was accept in Ba bakus et al.s (1993b) survey of 635 utility company customers. Analysis essentially produced a single-factor model of SQ which accounted for 66.3 per cent of the variance. The authors advance several possible explanations for this unidimensional result including the nature of the service, (which they describe as a low-involvement service with an ongoing consumption experience), non-response bias and the use of a single expectations/perceptions gap scale. These researchers concluded With the exception of findings reported by Parasuraman and his colleagues, empirical evidence does not support a five-dimensional concept of service quality.In summary, Babakus and Boller (1992) commented that the domain of service quality may be factorially complex in some industries and very simple and unidimensional in others. In effect, they claim that the number of SQ dimensions is dependent on the particular service being offered. In their revised version, Parasuraman et al. (1991b) suggest two rea sons for these anomalies. First, they may be the product of differences in data collection and analysis procedures. A more plausible explanation is that differences among empirically derived factors across takingss may be primarily due to across-dimension similarities and/or within dimension differences in customers evaluations of a specific company involved in each setting.Spreng and Singh (1993) have commented on the lack of discrimination between several of the dimensions. In their research, the correlation between self-assertion and Responsiveness constructs was 0.97, indicating that they were not separable constructs. They also found a high correlation between the combined Assurance-Responsiveness construct and the Empathy construct (0.87). Parasuraman et al. (1991b) had earlier found that Assurance and Responsiveness items loaded on a single factor and in their 1988 work had found mediocre intercorrelations among the five dimensions of 0.23 to 0.35.In testing their revised version (Parasuraman et al., 1991b), Parasuraman and colleagues found that the four items under Tangibles skint into two distinct dimensions, one pertaining to equipment and physical facilities, the other to employees and communication materials. They also found that Responsiveness and Assurance dimensions showed considerable overlap, and loaded on the same factor. They suggested that this was a product of imposing a five-factor constraint on the analyses. Indeed, the additional degrees of freedom allowed by a subsequent six-factor solution generated distinct Assurance and Responsiveness factors.Parasuraman et al., (1991a) have now accepted that the five SERVQUAL dimensions are coordinated as evidenced by the need for oblique rotations of factor solutionsto declare the most interpretable factor patterns. One fruitful area for rising research, they conclude, is to explore the nature and causes of these interrelationships. It therefore does appear that both contextual fortune and analytical processes have some bearing on the number of dimensions of SQ.2.6 contextual stabilityCarman (1990) tested the generic qualities of the SERVQUAL instrument in three service settings a tyre retailer, a business school placement contract and a alveolar consonant school patient clinic. Following Parasuraman et al.,s suggestion, he modified and augmented the items in the original ten-factor SERVQUAL scale to suit the three contexts. His factor analysis identified between five and seven underlying dimensions. According to Carman, customers are at least partly context-specific in the dimensions they employ to evaluate SQ. In all three cases, Tangibles, Reliability and gage were present 7. Responsiveness, a major component in the RATER scale, was relatively weak in the dental clinic context.Carman also commented Parasuraman, Zeithaml and Berry combined their original Understanding and admission price dimensions into Empathy our results did not find this to be an appropriate combination. In particular he found that if a dimension is very important to customers they are likely to be decomposed into a number of sub-dimensions. This happened for the placement centre where Responsiveness, Personal attention, opening and thingamajig were all identified as separate factors. According to Carman, this indicates that researchers should work with the original ten dimensions, rather than adopt the revised five-factor Parasuraman et al., (1988) model.2.7 Item loadingsIn some studies (e.g. Carman, 1990), items have not loaded on the factors to which they were expected to belong. Two items from the Empathy stamp battery of the Parasuraman et al., (1988) instrument loaded heavily on the Tangibles factor in a study of dental clinic SQ. In the tyre retail study, a Tangibles item loaded on to Security in the placement centre a Reliability item loaded on to Tangibles. An item concerning the ease of making appointments loaded on to Reliability in the dental clinic cont ext, but Security in the tyre store context. He also found that only two-thirds of the items loaded in the same way on the expectations battery as they did in the perceptions battery. Carman supplies other examples of the same phenomena, and suggests that the unexpected results indicate both face rigorousness and a construct hardship problem. In other words, he warns against importing SERVQUAL into service setting contexts without modification and validity checks.Among his specific recommendations is the following We recommend that items on Courtesy and Access be retained and that items on some dimensions such as Responsiveness and Access be expand where it is believed that these dimensions are of particular importance. He also reports specific Courtesy and Access items which performed well in terms of nomological and construct validity.Carman (1990) further suggested that the factors, Personal attention, Access or Convenience should be retained and further contextualised researc h work be done to identify their significance and meaning.2.8 Item correlationsConvergent validity and discriminant validity are important considerations in the measurement of second-order constructs such as SERVQUAL. One would associate a high level of convergent validity with a high level of intercorrelations between the items selected to measure a single RATER factor. Discriminant validity is indicated if the factors and their component items are independent of each other (i.e. the items load heavily on one factor only). Following their modified replication of Parasuraman et al.,s work, Babakus and Boller (1992) conclude that rules for convergence and discrimination do not indicate the earth of the five RATER dimensions.The best scales have a high level of intercorrelation between items comprising a dimension (convergent validity). In their development work in four sectors (banking, credit-card company, repair and maintenance company, and long-distance telecommunications company ) Parasuraman et al., (1988) found inter-item reliability coefficients (alphas) varying from 0.52 to 0.84. Babakus and Boller (1992) report alphas which are broadly consistent with those of Parasuraman, varying from 0.67 to 0.83 (see Table III). In their 1991b version, Parasuraman et al. report alphas from 0.60 to 0.93, and observe that every alpha value obtained for each dimension in the final study is higher than the corresponding values in theoriginal study. They attribute this improvement to their rewording of the 22 scale items.Spreng and Singh (1993), and Brown et al., (1993) are highly critical of the questionable application of alphas to difference scores. They evaluate the reliability of SERVQUAL using a measure specifically designed for difference scores (Lord, 1963). Spreng and Singh conclude that there is not a great deal of difference between the reliabilities correctly calculated and the more common alpha calculation, an observation with which Parasuraman et al., (1993 ) concurred when they wrote The collective conceptual and empirical evidence neither demonstrates clear superiority for the non-difference score format nor warrants abandoning the difference score format.2.9 Expectations (Operational Criticisms)Notwithstanding the more fundamental criticism that expectations play no significant role in the conceptualization of service quality, some critics have raised a number of other concerns about the operationalization of E in SERVQUAL.In their 1988 work, Parasuraman et al. defined expectations as desires or wants of consumers, i.e. what they feel a service provider should offer rather than would offer (emphasis added). The expectations component was designed to measure customers normative expectations (Parasuraman et al., 1990), and is similar to the ideal standard in the customer satisfaction/dissatisfaction literature (Zeithaml et al., 1991).Teas (1993a) found these explanations somewhat vague and has questioned respondents recitation of th e expectations battery in the SERVQUAL instrument. He believes that respondents may be using any one of six interpretations (Teas, 1993b)(1) Service attribute importance. Customers may respond by rating the expectations statements according to the importance of each.(2) Forecasted performance. Customers may respond by using the scale to predict the performance they would expect.(3) Ideal performance. The optimal performance what performance can be.(4) Deserved performance. The performance level customers, in the light of their investments, feel performance should be.(5) Equitable performance. The level of performance customers feel they ought to receive given a perceived set of costs.(6) Minimum tolerable performance. What performance moldiness be? Each of these interpretations is somewhat different, and Teas contends that a considerable percentage of the variance of the SERVQUAL expectations measure can be explained by the difference in respondents interpretations.Accordingly, the expectations component of the model lacks discriminant validity. Parasuraman et al. (1991b 1994) have responded to these criticisms by redefining expectations as the service customers would expect from gauzy service organizations, rather than normative expectations of service providers, and by vigorously defend their inclusion in SQ research. Iacobucci et al. (1994) want to drop the term expectations from the SQ vocabulary. They prefer the generic label standard, and believe that several standards may operate simultaneously among them ideals, my most desired combination of attributes, the industry standard of a nominal average competitor, deserved SQ, and brand standards based on past experiences with the brand.Some critics have questioned SERVQUALs failure to access customer evaluations based on absolute standards of SQ. The instrument asks respondents to report their expectations of excellent service providers within a class (i.e. the measures are relative rather than absolute). It has be

Scientific Advancements in Medical Technology

Scientific Advancements in Medical TechnologyAlice WyattScientific advancements3D printers atomic number 18 handlingd for many things including medicine to guns and new(prenominal) illegal items. Scientists have created a new 3D printer inspired by terminator 2. This way of life that it depart work 100 times faster than the normal 3D printer and can make items in minutes rather than hours. numerous tribe atomic number 18 happy because applied science is being advanced. Freaking awesome tech. This leave also allow shapes to be designed and built that are unsuffer sufficient with current methods. Said by Funcrew on the guardian website. This depicts that many of the exoteric are having authoritative thoughts about the new technology that is being call down and how it is shaping the world and how we are using the technology in insouciant life, it also shows how this new technology will allow us to do things we couldnt before. 3D printing is used in many distinguishab le ways and one is being a part of the dental constancy and being used by dentists so that they can poke and poke at and them and to show the patients what is going on in their own mouth and condone procedures that they may go through. Many citizenry are not intelligence why we need a more overpriced models fitting to show patients procedures. Do they need a new, presumably more expensive, model just for the purpose of explaining procedures to patients? said by Pollik. This shows that although many passel have positive thoughts the other half of the normal have negative thoughts and dont understand why the technology is being used and the technology we use now is just as good and is not as expensive as the new technology coming onto the market. These negative attitudes make people jump onto these attitudes and start to criticise the technology and result in the technology not getting brought, however the positive attitudes may make celebrities and other famous people to acc ept these technologies resulting in a lot of people wanting this new technology and making the sales go precise high up. The moot about 3D printers at the moment in who actually buys these as if it is criminals who buys these to make guns and other illegal items, this could mean in the criminals running wild and being able to make many, many items in just a week, this could cause a lot of problems throughout the world. Whether as the 3D printers that are used for medical advancements or in true business industries are useful and therefore there is no debate on using 3D printers in these terms, it is just when the 3D printers are not used for good things, this then results in the society not looking the new technology when it is being used for bad things. These issues that the worldly concern has about the 3D printers are not important enough to point in time any development of the 3D printers. This is because the 3D printers are more or less being used for the health and wellbe ing of the public in the NHS with medical issues and dentistry issues and also in the different industries of business, and are only when ever rarely used by criminals for illegal ideas. 3D printers are used a lot to help people and explain to people things that they cant see themselves. Peoples perception of 3D printers can be improved by the government and businesses taking the 3D printers of the market to the public and just letting businesses or the NHS being able to buy these this would result in criminals not getting a discernment of the 3D printers and the public can stop worrying about what they will do with them. Peoples perception would also change about 3D printers if they cost a bit less to buy as they k now that the NHS and other businesses will be buying these things for experiments and the public know that buying expensive equipment in the NHS means that they wont have money to do other things as they dont have money as it is.BibliographyWhat are the pros and cons o f MRI scans?M Billingsley fifteenth March 2012http//doc2doc.bmj.com/forums/open-clinical_radiology_pros-cons-of-mri-scansAccessed on 13/03/15What is a Heart MRI? humour Krans 26th June 2012http//www.healthline.com/health/heart-mriOverview1Accessed on 13/03/15Medical Applications for 3D printing Current and projected uses, C Lee Ventola October 2014http//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4189697/Accessed on 18/03/15Gartner says uses of 3D printing will ignite major debate on morals and regulation, Conn Stamford 29th January 2014http//www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/2658315Accessed on 19/03/15What are the ethical issues contact gene therapy?March 16th 2015http//ghr.nlm.nih.gov/handbook/therapy/ethicsAccessed on 19/03/15Scientists create Terminator 2-inspired 3D printer, Hannah Devlin Thursday 19th March 2015 1845http//www.theguardian.com/science/2015/mar/19/scientists-create-terminator-2-inspired-3d-printerAccessed on 19/03/15 make a face Meet the 3D printer churning out teeth, nerves and gums for dentists, Stuart drag Monday 16th March 2015,http//www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/mar/16/3d-printer-teeth-nerves-gums-dentistsAccessed on 19/03/15